How Much Milk Does a Beef Cow Produce

Cattle bred to produce milk

"Dairy cow" redirects here. For the species of woodlouse, meet Porcellio laevis.

A Holstein cow with prominent udder and less muscle than is typical of beefiness breeds

Dairy cattle (too called dairy cows) are cattle bred for the power to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are fabricated. Dairy cattle generally are of the species Bos taurus.^[1]

Historically, there was petty distinction betwixt dairy cattle and beefiness cattle, with the same stock often being used for both meat and milk production. Today, the bovine manufacture is more than specialized and most dairy cattle have been bred to produce big volumes of milk.

Management [edit]

Cows on a dairy farm in Maryland, U.S.

Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary effectually the world depending on landholding culture and social structure. The United States has an estimated nine million cows in around 75,000 dairy herds, with an average herd size of 120 cows. The number of pocket-size herds is falling rapidly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.S. milk in 2007.^[2] The Uk dairy herd overall has about 1.5 million cows, with about 100 caput reported on an average farm.^[3] In New Zealand, the average herd has more than than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220 cows in the average herd.^{[4] [5]}

The United States dairy herd produced 84.two billion kilograms (185.seven billion pounds) of milk in 2007,^[half-dozen] upwards from 52.9 billion kilograms (116.6 billion pounds) in 1950,^[7] notwithstanding there were just about 9 million cows on U.Due south. dairy farms—nigh 13 million fewer than there were in 1950.^[vii] The superlative breed of dairy cow inside Canada'south national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have an annual production rate of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 pounds) of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and iii.two% protein.^[viii]

Dairy farming, like many other livestock rearing, can be split up into intensive and extensive management systems.^[9]

Intensive systems focus towards maximum product per cow in the herd. This involves formulating their nutrition to provide ideal nutrition and housing the cows in a confinement system such as complimentary stall or tie stall. These cows are housed indoors throughout their lactation and may be put to pasture during their 60-twenty-four hour period dry out period before ideally calving again. Gratis stall style barns involve cattle loosely housed where they can have free access to feed, water, and stalls but are moved to another function of the befouled to exist milked multiple times a day. In a necktie stall system, the milking units are brought to the cows during each milking. These cattle are tethered within their stalls with costless access to water and feed are provided. In extensive systems, cattle are mainly outside on pasture for near of their lives. These cattle are by and large lower in milk production and are herded multiple times daily to be milked. The systems used greatly depends on the climate and available land of the region in which the subcontract is situated.^[9]

A cow caring for her newborn calf

To maintain lactation, a dairy cow must be bred and produce calves.^[10] Depending on market place conditions, the cow may be bred with a "dairy bull" or a "beef bull." Female calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement moo-cow turns out to exist a substandard producer of milk, she and then goes to marketplace and can exist slaughtered for beefiness. Male calves can either exist used later as a breeding balderdash or sold and used for veal or beef. Dairy farmers usually begin breeding or artificially inseminating heifers around 13 months of age.^[eleven] A cow's gestation menstruum is approximately 9 months.^[12] Newborn calves are separated from their mothers quickly, ordinarily inside 3 days, as the mother/calf bond intensifies over time and delayed separation tin cause extreme stress on both cow and calf.^[13]

Domestic cows tin can alive to 13 years; withal, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around historic period six and marketed for beef.^{[12] [14]} In 2014, approximately nine.v% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that can no longer be seen as an economic asset to the dairy farm.^[15] These animals may be sold due to reproductive issues or common diseases of milk cows such as mastitis and lameness.^[14]

Calf [edit]

Most heifers (female person calves) are kept on farm to be raised equally a replacement heifer, a female person that is bred and enters the product cycle. Market calves are mostly sold at ii weeks of historic period and bull calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for veal, or for one of several types of beef production, depending on bachelor local crops and markets. Such bull calves may be castrated if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, to brand them less aggressive. Purebred bulls from elite cows may be put into progeny testing schemes to find out whether they might become superior sires for breeding. Such animals tin go extremely valuable.

Most dairy farms separate calves from their mothers within a solar day of nascence to reduce transmission of illness and simplify management of milking cows. Studies have been done allowing calves to remain with their mothers for 1, iv, 7 or 14 days after nascency. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one day after birth showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves allowed to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at iii times the rate of early removals as well every bit more searching behavior and better social relationships with other calves.^{[16] [17]}

After separation, some young dairy calves subsist on commercial milk replacer, a feed based on stale milk pulverization. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk because it is cheaper, can be bought at varying fat and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A solar day-old calf consumes effectually 5 liters of milk per day.^{[18] [ citation needed ]}

Cattle are social animals; their ancestors tended to live in matriarchal groups of mothers and offspring. The germination of "friendships" betwixt ii cows is common and long lasting. Traditionally individual housing systems were used in calf rearing, to reduce the risk of disease spread and provide specific intendance. Notwithstanding, due to their social behaviour the grouping of offspring may be better for the calves' overall welfare. Social interaction betwixt the calves can have a positive outcome on their growth. It has been seen that calves housed in grouped penning were establish to eat more feed than those in single pens,^[xix] suggesting social facilitation of feeding behaviour in the calves. Play behaviour in pre-weaned dairy calves has also been suggested to help build social skills for later on in life. It has been seen that those reared in grouped housing are more than likely to become the dominant cattle in a new combination of animals.^[20] These dominant animals have a priority pick of feed or lying areas and are by and large stronger animals. For these reasons, it has go mutual practise to group or pair calves in their housing. It has become common in Canada to see paired or grouped housing in outdoor hutches or in an indoor pack penning.^{[21] [ citation needed ]}

Balderdash [edit]

A bull calf with loftier genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. Information technology may be kept by a dairy farm as a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A bull may service upwardly to l or sixty cows during a breeding season. Whatsoever more than and the sperm count declines, leading to cows "returning to service" (needing to be bred once again). A herd bull may merely stay for one season, equally when nearly bulls reach over two years old their temperament becomes besides unpredictable.

Bull calves intended for breeding are unremarkably bred on specialized dairy breeding farms, not production farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for artificial insemination.

Milk production levels [edit]

Dairy cattle in Mangskog, Sweden, 1911.

Dairy Cows, Collins Center, New York, U.s.a., 1999

The dairy cow produces large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels peak at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterwards until milking is stopped at nigh x months. The cow is "dried off" for about 60 days before calving over again. Within a 12 to xiv-month inter-calving bicycle, the milking period is nearly 305 days or 10 months long.^{[22] [23] [24]} Amidst many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of effectually half-dozen,800 to 17,000 kg (15,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year.^{[25] [ commendation needed ]}

The Holstein Friesian is the primary breed of dairy cattle in Commonwealth of australia, and said to take the "world'due south highest" productivity, at ten,000 litres (2,200 imp gal; 2,600 US gal) of milk per year.^[26] The average for a single dairy cow in the US in 2007 was 9,164 kg (20,204 lb) per year, excluding milk consumed past her calves,^[vi] whereas the same average value for a single cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine printing to be 12,240 kg (26,980 lb) in 2009.^[27] High product cows are more difficult to breed at a two-year interval. Many farms take the view that 24 or even 36 month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow.^{[28] [29]}

Dairy cows may continue to exist economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of problems arising which may lead to a cow beingness culled are high, however; the boilerplate herd life of Us Holstein is today fewer than iii lactations. This requires more herd replacements to exist reared or purchased. Over xc% of all cows are slaughtered for iv principal reasons:

• Infertility – failure to excogitate and reduced milk production.

Cows are at their nigh fertile between 60 and 80 days after calving. Cows remaining "open" (not with calf) after this period become increasingly difficult to breed, which may exist due to poor health. Failure to expel the afterbirth from a previous pregnancy, luteal cysts, or metritis, an infection of the uterus, are mutual causes of infertility.

• Mastitis – a persistent and potentially fatal mammary gland infection, leading to high somatic cell counts and loss of production.

Mastitis is recognized by a reddening and swelling of the infected quarter of the udder and the presence of whitish clots or pus in the milk. Treatment is possible with long-acting antibiotics but milk from such cows is not marketable until drug residues take left the cow's system, likewise called withdrawal period.

• Lameness – persistent foot infection or leg problems causing infertility and loss of production.

High feed levels of highly digestible carbohydrate crusade acidic conditions in the cow'southward rumen. This leads to laminitis and subsequent lameness, leaving the cow vulnerable to other foot infections and bug which may be exacerbated by standing in faeces or water soaked areas.

• Production – some animals neglect to produce economic levels of milk to justify their feed costs.

Production below 12 to 15 Fifty (2.6 to 3.three imp gal; 3.2 to 4.0 US gal) of milk per day is not economically feasible.^{[30] [ failed verification ] [ commendation needed ]}

Cow longevity is strongly correlated with product levels.^[31] Lower production cows live longer than high production cows, but may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk product are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively depression value and is by and large used for processed meat. Some other factor affecting milk product is the stress the moo-cow is faced with. Psychologists at the Academy of Leicester, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming music can improve milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans.

Cow condolement and its effects on milk production [edit]

Certain behaviors such as eating, ruminating, and lying down tin be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort. These behaviors can too be related to the productivity of the cows. Too, stress, illness, and discomfort negatively bear upon milk productivity. Therefore, it can be said that it is in the all-time interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible.^[32] Besides, estrous behaviors such as mounting can be a sign of cow comfort, since if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or housed in an over crowded barn, its estrous behaviors is altered.^[33]

Feeding behaviors are of import for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the cow ingests dry matter. However, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and employ the nutrients in the feed.^[34] Dairy cows with good rumen wellness are likely to be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health—equally a good for you rumen aids in digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk product.^[32] The productivity of dairy cattle is nearly efficient when the cattle have a full rumen.^[35] Also, the continuing action while feeding afterward milking has been suggested to enhance udder health. The commitment of fresh feed while the cattle are abroad for milking stimulates the cattle to feed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis as the sphincters take time to close while standing.^[36] This makes the pattern of feeding directly after beingness milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd.

Cows have a high motivation to lie downwardly.^[34] They should lie downwardly for at least five to six hours after every meal to ruminate well.^[37] When the lactating dairy moo-cow lies down, blood menses is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a higher milk yield.^[38] When they stand besides long, cows go stressed, lose weight, get sore anxiety, and produce less milk.^[37]

To ensure that the dairy cows lie downwardly equally much as needed, the stalls must exist comfy.^[37] A stall should have a safe mat and bedding, and be large enough for the cow to prevarication down and become up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfy enough for the cows are the cows are standing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying down, or perching, which is when the cow has its forepart end in the stall and their back stop out of the stall.^[39] Dried manure, almond shells, straw, sand, or waterbeds are used for cow bedding.^[37]

At that place are two types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and tie stall. Gratuitous mode housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its environs and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stantion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.^[40]

By-products and processing [edit]

Pasteurization is the process of heating milk to a loftier enough temperature for a short period of time to impale the microbes in the milk and increase continue time and decrease spoilage fourth dimension. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C (145 °F) for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for fifteen seconds at 72 °C (162 °F).^[41] By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the principal lipid in milk. The cream contains xviii–40% butterfat. The industry can be divided into 2 market place territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and water ice cream.^[42]

Whey poly peptide makes up about 20% of milk's poly peptide composition and is separated from the casein (lxxx% of milk's poly peptide make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is normally used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid contour. It contains levels of both essential amino acids too as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat.^[43] "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and h2o from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.^[44]

Reproduction [edit]

Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at most dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses oestrus synchronization to indicate when the cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low cost and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a large number of bulls, emptying of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare.^{[45] [ citation needed ]} Rather than a large bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to consummate the breeding procedure within v minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female person'southward body.^{[46] [ citation needed ]}

Dairy cattle are polyestrous, meaning they cycle continuously throughout the yr. They tend to be on a 21 twenty-four hour period estrus cycle. However for management purposes, some operations use synthetic hormones to synchronize their cows or heifers to accept them breed and calve at the ideal times. These hormones are short term and only used when necessary. For example, i common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the torso. Then, 7 days afterward prostaglandin F2-blastoff is injected, followed past some other GnRH injection 48 hours afterward. This protocol causes the animal to ovulate 24 hours later.^[47]

Estrus is often chosen standing heat in cattle and refers to the time in their cycle where the female person is receptive towards the male. Estrus behaviour can be detected past an experienced stockman. These behaviours can include standing to be mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake.^[48]

More recently, embryo transfer has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from aristocracy cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are and then 'flushed' from the cow'southward uterus. vii–12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as surrogate mothers. This results in between three and vi calves instead of the normal single or (rarely) twins.

Hormone use [edit]

Farmers in some countries sometimes administrate hormone treatments to dairy cows to increment milk product and reproduction.

Well-nigh 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, besides chosen recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or bogus growth hormone.^[49] The utilize of this hormone increases milk production past 11%–25%.^{[ commendation needed ]} The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people.^{[ commendation needed ]} The use of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, every bit well equally Australia and New Zealand.^{[ commendation needed ]}

In the Us the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires a milk sample is taken from every farm and from every load of milk delivered to a processing plant.^[fifty] These samples are then tested for antibody and any milk testing positive is discarded and farm identified. Traceback to the dairy is undertaken by the FDA with further consequences including the possibility revocation of power to sell milk.^[51]

Nutrition [edit]

Dairy cattle at feeding time

Nutrition plays an of import part in keeping cattle good for you and strong. Implementing an adequate diet programme tin can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. Food requirements may not be the aforementioned depending on the fauna'southward age and stage of product. Diets are formulated to run into the dairy cow'due south energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction.^[52]

Forages, which refer especially to anything grown in the field such as hay, straw, corn silage, or grass silage, are the most common blazon of feed used. The base of nearly lactating dairy cattle diets is high quality forage. Cereal grains, as the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in helping to come across the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is an first-class source of balanced amounts of poly peptide, free energy, and cobweb.^[53]

Ensuring adequate trunk fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to continue reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fatty or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may take problems with calving.^[54] Scientists accept establish that a variety of fat supplements tin can benefit conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these dissimilar fats include oleic acids, constitute in canola oil, beast tallow, and yellowish grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean.^[55]

Using by-products is i way of reducing the usually high feed costs. However, lack of noesis of their nutritional and economical value limits their use. Although the reduction of costs may exist significant, they take to be used advisedly considering creature may have negative reactions to radical changes in feeds, (due east.g. fog fever). Such a change must then be made slowly and with the proper follow upwardly.^[56]

Breeds [edit]

According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, PDCA, there are seven major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Bailiwick of jersey, Crimson and White, and Milking Shorthorn.^[57]

Holstein cows originate from the Netherlands and have distinct black and white or more than rarely red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all dairy breeds. A total mature Holstein cow usually weighs effectually 700 kilograms (1,500 lb) and is 147 centimetres (58 in) tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk product among the principal breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around 10,000 kilograms (23,000 lb) of milk each lactation. Of the 9 million dairy cows in the U.Due south., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent.^[58] The tiptop breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have a production rate of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 lb) of milk per moo-cow that contains 3.ix% butter fat and 3.2% poly peptide^[8]

Brown Swiss cows are widely accepted every bit the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a part of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts recollect that the mod Brownish Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from around the twelvemonth 4000 BC Also, at that place is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about one thousand years ago.^[59]

The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded as a well established breed in 1812. The unlike breeds that were crossed to grade the Ayrshire are not exactly known. Even so, there is evidence that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.^[60]

Guernsey cows originated only off the coast of France on the small-scale Isle of Guernsey. The breed was first known as a divide breed around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Golden Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce.^[61]

The Jersey breed of dairy cow originated on a pocket-sized island located off the coast of France called Bailiwick of jersey.^[62] Despite existence one of the oldest breeds of dairy cattle they at present only occupy iv% of the Canadian National Herd.^[63] Purebred Jersey cows, co-ordinate to available data, accept been in the Britain area since about the year 1741. When they were commencement bred in this surface area, they were not known every bit Jerseys, but rather equally the related Alderneys. The period between 1860 and effectually 1914 was a popular time for Jerseys. In this fourth dimension span, many countries other than the Usa started importing this breed, including Canada, Southward Africa, and New Zealand, amongst others.^[64]

Amongst the smallest of the dairy breeds, the boilerplate Bailiwick of jersey cow matures at approximately 410 kilograms (900 lb), with a typical weight range between 360 and 540 kilograms (800–1,200 lb). According to North Dakota State University, the fat content of the Bailiwick of jersey cow'southward milk is 4.9 pct. It is also the highest in poly peptide, at 3.8 pct.^[65] This loftier fat content means the milk is often used for making ice cream and cheeses. According to the American Jersey Cattle Clan, Jerseys are plant on 20 per centum of all Us dairy farms and are the primary breed in nigh 4 percent of dairies.^{[66] [ commendation needed ]}

Amidst the Bos indicus, the near popular dairy brood in the earth is Sahiwal of the Indian subcontinent. Information technology does not give as much milk as the Taurine breeds, but it is by far the most suitable breed for warmer climates. Australian Friesian Sahiwal and Australian Milking Zebu have been developed in Australia using Sahiwal genetics. Gir, another of the Bos indicus breeds, has been improved in Brazil for its milk production and is widely used there for dairy.

Animal welfare [edit]

Animate being welfare refers to both the concrete and mental state of an animate being, and how it is coping with its situation. An beast is considered in a practiced state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from harmful states such as distress, fear and pain. Good fauna welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, advisable shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If the beast is slaughtered and so it is no longer "good animal welfare".^[67] Information technology is the human responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and management practices including humane euthanasia.

Proper animate being handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare also as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such every bit increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of man-animal interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike accept focused on furthering our agreement of stockmanship and educating agronomics workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of motility, and sounds and touch of the handler.^{[68] [ citation needed ]}

A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.half-dozen% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. Withal, equally the growing U.Due south. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship grooming and education resources become more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such equally language barriers and time limitations.^[69] Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agronomics Safety and Health Center offering resources such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker grooming. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, alive demonstrations, and online resource for stockmanship training.^{[70] [ commendation needed ]}

For cows to reach loftier functioning in milk yields and reproduction, they must be in not bad condition and comfortable in the organisation. Once an private's welfare is reduced, and so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, hygienic, atmosphere for their cattle. Also equally provide quality nutrition that keep the cows yield high.^[71]

The production of milk requires that the cow exist in lactation, which is a effect of the cow having given birth to a calf. The bicycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed past a "dry" period of nearly 2 months earlier calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry flow that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.^[72] Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised every bit steers for beef product or used for veal.

The practise of dairy product has been criticized by animal rights proponents. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy product cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, the fact that dairy cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young age, as well as environmental concerns regarding whatever cattle production.^[73]

Run into as well [edit]

• List of Dairy cattle breeds
• Estrous synchronization
• Fog fever
• Dairy cattle showmanship
• Meat industry

References [edit]

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